Amending America
Winter 2015, Vol. 47, No. 4
By Christine Blackerby
The Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, sets out the first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution.
What if we elected the President of the United States by lot鈥攂y pulling a ball representing a candidate out of a bowl? A constitutional amendment introduced in Congress in 1846 proposed precisely that.
In 1838, one member of Congress shot another, prompting the introduction of an amendment to the Constitution to deny public o铿僣e to duelers.
A citizen wrote to Congress in 1963 to advocate for a constitutional amendment to require that Americans 鈥渢ell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.鈥� Anyone who failed in that duty would be sentenced to 20 years of hard labor.
These are just a few of the more than 11,000 constitutional amendments that have been proposed in Congress since the Constitution was written in 1787. Some of them were proposed to call attention to an issue, some as satire, some to allow a member of Congress to take a political stand, and some were very serious appeals to resolve pressing problems.
What most of these proposed amendments have in common, though, is that they failed to be enacted. Only 27 of the more than 11,000 proposed amendments have been ratified to become part of the Constitution.
It is difficult鈥攂ut not impossible鈥攖o turn an idea into an amendment. The reason so few amendments have been successful is that our Constitution sets a high bar to pass amendments. Each of the 27 amendments has passed both houses of Congress by a two-thirds vote, and then they were ratified by three-quarters of the state legislatures.
So, what kinds of proposals achieve enough support to become a ratified amendment?
This question is explored in "Amending America," a new 威尼斯人娱乐场 exhibi颅tion. "'Amending America'' features 威尼斯人娱乐场 documents that highlight the suc颅cesses and failures of Americans' attempts to change our nation's fundamental governing charter," said co-curator Jennifer Johnson.
The exhibition is part of the 威尼斯人娱乐场' celebration of the 225th anniversary of the ratifica颅tion of the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, known collectively as the Bill of Rights. The exhibi颅tion will also feature others of the 27 ratified amendments, as well as many of the 11,000 proposed amendments that failed. ''Amending America" will be on display in the Lawrence F. O'Brien Gallery at the 威尼斯人娱乐场 Building in Washington, D.C., through September 4, 2017. The exhibition is presented in part by the 威尼斯人娱乐场 Foundation through the generous support of AT&T, HISTORY庐, and the Lawrence F. O'Brien Family.
Most Amendments Focus on Expanding Our Rights
More than anything else, the history of constitutional amendments is a history of expanding rights and democracy. Seventeen of the 27 ratified amendments secure or expand individual rights, including voting rights. Some proposed amendments would limit or remove individual rights, but none of these have ultimately been successful. ''Amending America'' includes documents that illustrate the struggles to win those rights, and also the clashes when people's rights conflict.
The First 10 Amendments: The Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, set the stage for 225 years of expansion and secur颅ing of individual rights. Originally, some saw it as merely a statement of values. But in the 20th century it was used to establish enforceable limits on government actions.
As visitors enter the gallery, they will see a montage of photographs and film clips that depict Americans engaging in actions that are protected by the Bill of Rights, including free speech, practice of religion, and the right to peaceably assemble. Nearby will be several documents that illuminate how the Bill of Rights came to be.
One of these is the voting record of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. It shows that the omission of a bill of rights from the Constitution was deliberate, not an oversight. George Mason proposed adding a bill of rights 铿乿e days before the convention ended. But after a short debate, the state delegations voted the motion down, 0鈥�10.
That omission proved to be a mistake almost fatal to the Constitution. New York and several other states agreed to ratify with the promise that the First Congress would add rights to the Constitution through the amendment process. These states might have rejected the Constitution without the promise of a future bill of rights. Visitors will see several pages of New York鈥檚 rati铿乧ation of the Constitution, which includes a list of amendments that New York wanted to see proposed in the First Congress.
James Madison of Virginia, sometimes called the 鈥渇ather of the Constitution,鈥� kept that promise when he introduced rights-related amendments in the House of Representatives in the First Congress. The Senate then reworked the amendment language passed by the House. Visitors will be able to see the Senate鈥檚 marked-up draft, which illuminates the Senate鈥檚 debate. The senators spilled the most ink on the Third and Fourth Articles, which were later combined to form the First Amendment.
The Bill of Rights became the 铿乺st 10 amendments to the Constitution when Virginia rati铿乪d them on December 15, 1791. Virginia鈥檚 a铿價mative vote, the 11th of the 14 states in the Union, met the constitutionally required bar of three-quarters of the states needed for rati铿乧ation. Since 1941, December 15 has been celebrated as Bill of Rights Day.
Protection for Right to Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Petition
The First Amendment protects freedom of religion, speech, and press, and the right to assemble and petition. 鈥淎mending America鈥� features many documents that portray these rights in action.
In the early 1960s, the Supreme Court invalidated the common practice of teacher-led prayer in public schools as a violation of the First Amendment鈥檚 Establishment Clause. In response, members of Congress introduced hundreds of amendments, both to protect school prayer and also to con铿乺m that school prayer could not be required. Others urged Congress not to alter the First Amendment at all.
A letter from a Baptist church stated that these proposed amendments addressed a problem that did not exist. God and the Bible never left schools, the letter writer pointed out. Stu-dents could still pray; the Court stated only that compulsory prayer was unconstitutional.
Flag burning is free speech, ruled the Supreme Court in Texas v. Johnson (1989). The Court explained, 鈥淕overnment may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society 铿乶ds the idea itself o铿�ensive or disagreeable.鈥�
In response, Congress considered an amendment to alter the First Amendment to prohibit 铿俛g burning. This proposed amendment illustrated that the 铿乺m belief in the importance of the American 铿俛g as a unique symbol of freedom was at odds with the equally powerful notion that the First Amendment guarantees Americans the right to freedom of speech, regardless of how insulting that speech may be. Visitors can read a letter to Congress from People for the American Way that details several objections to the Flag Desecration Amendment, which ultimately failed to pass.
Does the First Amendment鈥檚 protection of the free press include crime and horror comic books aimed at children? The Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency collected more than 600 comic books during a 1954 investigation of whether such comics contributed to youth crime, and one of these is displayed in the gallery. Although the Senate considered censoring this kind of publication, ultimately they proposed no such bill.
The program for the 1963 March on Washington illustrates civil rights activists' plans to exercise their First Amendment right to peaceably assemble.
The program for the 1963 March on Washington illustrates civil rights activists鈥� plans to exercise their First Amendment right to peaceably assemble. But congressional opponents of the then-pending Civil Rights Act argued that the march would incite violence and riots and therefore should be prohibited as an 鈥渋llegal assembly.鈥� Their fears were unfounded, and the march proceeded calmly. Many of the addresses were memorable鈥攅specially Martin Luther King Jr.鈥檚 鈥淚 Have a Dream鈥� speech鈥攂ut the most emotionally powerful aspect of the march was the demonstrators鈥� peaceful assembly. The Civil Rights Act became law in 1964.
Petition drive organizers in the 1800s and 1900s vigorously exercised their First Amendment right to petition the government for redress of grievances. Organizers printed the text of a petition on the top of a page and then left the bottom blank for signatures. After gathering signatures, the pages were often glued end to end to form one giant document, which was then sent to Congress. One of these large petitions, from the residents of the District of Columbia against the enactment of a District Prohibition bill, is rolled up like a scroll and will be in the gallery for visitors to examine.
Like so many other parts of 21st-century life, petitioning has gone digital. Visitors will be able to use an iPad to explore the 鈥淲e the People鈥� website, created by the Obama administration to allow direct petitioning of the President. Anyone can create a petition, and if a petition gets 100,000 signatures within 30 days, the administration will respond.
Many of the documents at the 威尼斯人娱乐场 tell stories of the protection of First Amendment rights, but some show these rights being infringed. Visitors can see a poster by the Hollywood writers and actors who created the Committee for the First Amendment in 1947 to defend their right to free speech from the investigations of the House UnAmerican Activities Committee (HUAC) of Congress. In an attempt to root out communists from American institutions during the Cold War, HUAC subpoenaed actors and screenwriters known as the 鈥淗ollywood Ten鈥� to question their beliefs and associations with the Communist Party. Citing the First Amendment, they refused to answer and were jailed for contempt of Congress.
As congressional committees continued to investigate individuals' personal beliefs, speech, and associations, the targets of the investigators abandoned the unsuccessful First Amendment defense and switched to the Fifth.
The Bill of Rights Provides Many Protections for Citizens
The Fifth Amendment provides protections to accused criminals, including the right against self-incrimination. Although she was a playwright, not a criminal, Lillian Hellman "pied the Fifth," refusing to testify to HUAC about herself if it meant that she also had to testify about other people's political beliefs and speech. Those who "pied the Fifth" did not go to prison, but most of them were blacklisted and could no longer find work in Hollywood.
The phrasing of the Second Amendment has led to different interpretations. A long颅standing argument is that the "right to bear arms" is a collective right that prohibits the federal government from disarming state militia. The ascendant argument says it is an individual right guaranteed to every citizen.
After President Gerald Ford escaped two assassination attempts in 1975, both made with "Saturday Night Specials," many citizens blamed these small, easy-to-conceal hand颅guns for rising crime rates. The guns became the focus of an advertisement by the Com颅mittee for Hand Gun Control, which visi颅tors can examine. The DC Firearms Control Regulations Act passed soon after in 1976. The Supreme Court invalidated the act in District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), ruling for the first time that gun ownership is an individual right.
The right to trial by jury, guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment, is so fundamental that it dates to Magna Carta of 1215. A jury of one's peers stands between the accused criminal and the government, preventing abuse of power. The Seventh Amendment protects the same right in civil trials.
Visitors can see the signatures of the 12 mem颅bers of the jury on the guilty verdict in gang颅ster Al Capone's tax evasion trial. However, this jury was not the one Capone initially expected. Capone knew who would be the jurors before the trial judge did. He had already passed out thousands of dollars in cash, free tickets, and other goodies to the jurors before the trial con颅vened. The judge learned what Capone had done, and as the trial opened, he ordered that the entire jury be unseated and switched with the panel for a trial that was starting in another courtroom. The replacement jury convicted Capone, and he served eight years in prison.
Voting Rights Expand to More Americans
Seven other ratified amendments, besides the first 10, relate to rights, and thousands more were proposed in Congress to expand or constrict rights.
Because the Constitution gives each state the power to determine voter qualifications, a constitutional amendment is required to guarantee any particular group of Americans the right to vote. Some states historically have excluded groups from voting, such as African Americans, women, illiterate per颅sons, felons, or young people.
The first amendment to change those requirements was the 15th Amendment, rat颅ified in 1870, five years after the end of the Civil War. It forbids any state from deny颅ing the vote to anyone "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
However, the amendment was not enforced until after the passage of the Vot颅ing Rights Act of 1965, 95 years later. The act was introduced in Congress after televi颅sion news stations broadcast graphic footage of "Bloody Sunday," when peaceful voting rights marchers in Selma were violently sup颅pressed by Alabama state troopers.
This horrific event catalyzed public sup-port for voting rights legislation to enforce the 15th Amendment's guarantee of the right to vote regardless of race. "Amending America'' includes an emotionally powerful letter from Mrs. E. Jackson to illustrate that support. She wrote it the day after Bloody Sunday to urge Congress to protect the marchers' right to vote.
Some amendments introduced in Con颅gress attempted but failed to solve a prob颅lem that was successfully addressed by a later amendment.
Before the 19th Amendment granted woman suffrage in 1920, an 1888 resolution proposed voting rights only for widows and spinsters, suggesting that married women were "represented" by their husbands. Part serious and part mocking, suffragist Eliza颅beth Cady Stanton testified to Congress in support of this proposal, stating: "they are industrious, common-sense women . . . who love their country (having no husbands to love) better than themselves."
At the age of 18, young men were consid颅ered mature enough to fight, but not to vote. When 18-year-olds were drafted to fight in Vietnam, the disparity became striking. A political cartoon published in 1968 portrayed this incongruity with an image of a young soldier in a combat zone reading a newspaper story about lowering the voting age, and he tells his buddy, "Hey! They're going to treat me like a man!" In 1971, the 26th Amend颅ment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. This amendment was ratified faster than any other amendment鈥攊n only 100 days.
Five ratified amendments relating to vot颅ing rights have guaranteed suffrage to most Americans. But a notable group remains disenfranchised. Residents of the District of Columbia鈥攖he capital of the United States鈥攑ay federal taxes, serve on juries, and enlist in the military, but they can颅not vote for congressional representatives because they have no senators or repre颅sentatives in the House. An amendment that passed Congress in 1978 would have changed that, but it was not ratified by the states. In 1961, however, the 23rd Amend颅ment gave the District three Electoral Col颅lege votes for President. Visitors can see a political cartoon from 1920 that portrays District residents as similar to the American revolutionaries who fought against taxation without representation.
The 14th Amendment Focuses on Equality for All Citizens
The Declaration of Independence states that "all men are created equal." Several amend颅ments aimed to ensure that everyone was treated equally, too.
The Civil War produced seismic shifts in American culture, the economy, and the Constitution. In the 186Os, three amend颅ments were ratified, and each one expanded rights. Visitors to "Amending America'' will be able to see a significant failed amendment from this time period, the Corwin Amend颅ment.
Just weeks before the Civil War started in 1861, concerns over Southern secession were still balanced with hopes of preserving the Union and averting war. Representative Thomas Corwin {R-Ohio) proposed a con颅stitutional amendment to maintain slavery and make the amendment itself unamend颅able. It passed Congress, but the Civil War started before the states had time to consider ratification. Four years later, Congress passed the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery颅鈥攖he exact opposite of Corwin's amendment.
The 14th Amendment fundamentally altered the balance of power between the states and the federal government by requir颅ing states to protect rights to which they previously had not been constitutionally bound. The joint resolution of Congress that proposed the 14th Amendment, argu颅ably one of the most consequential of the 27 ratified amendments, will be on display.
When it was ratified in 1791, the Bill of Rights only prohibited the federal govern颅ment from restricting rights鈥攖he protec颅tions did not apply to state governments. The 14th Amendment changed this鈥攅ventually. It passed Congress in 1866 (and was ratified by the states in 1868) with the intention of protecting the rights of the newly freed slaves from the state governments that so recently had been part of the Confederacy. It failed in that regard, but in the 20th century, the 14th Amendment became the core instrument for challenging discriminatory laws and expand颅ing rights for all citizens.
Starting in the 1920s, the Supreme Court began to change its interpretation of the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amend颅ment. Case by case, the Supreme Court ruled that the "due process of law" guaran颅teed to all by the 14th Amendment meant that the states as well as the federal govern颅ment were required to uphold fundamental rights. Through this process, referred to as "incorporation," most of the Bill of Rights now applies to state governments, too.
The 14th Amendment has five sections, but Section 1 is a constitutional powerhouse. The Due Process Clause ensures fair treatment in the legal system. The Citizenship Clause defines a citizen as anyone born in the United States. The Equal Protection Clause requires governments to treat all citizens equally under the law.
Relying on the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, the complainants in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka argued that segregated schools were uncon颅stitutional. The landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision ended school segregation, stating, "We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." An excerpt of the complaint in this case is on display in the gallery.
Introduced in Congress more times than any other proposed amendment, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) would have provided for legal gender equality if it had been ratified by the states before the congressionally imposed deadline in 1982. Opponents of the ERA argued that it would nullify laws that "protected" women from working long hours or physically challenging jobs. But supporters wanted equal treatment regardless.
Letters to Congress from two women represent these contrary perspectives on the ERA. Mrs. Thomas Zeko expressed her opposition, stating "that a woman will find her fulfillment in competing for some tra颅ditionally male position just isn't so." But supporter Liz Carpenter said, "Women will gladly trade protective laws for some equal pay and equal rights."
Amendments Are Proposed to Refine Government Power
What do we want our government to do for us?
The Constitution authorizes many powers for the federal government, but Americans have suggested many additions to that list. Frequently, the powers in proposed amend颅ments to the Constitution are responses to specific events at certain points in time. They fail because they don't achieve a sus颅tained consensus over time.
Attempts to codify "proper" behavior through amendments has been unsuccess颅ful, but it hasn't stopped every generation from trying. The establishment of Prohibi颅tion in 1919 with the ratification of the 18th Amendment was the capstone of decades of efforts by those who supported moral living by refusing to drink alcohol. But Prohibi颅tion failed after 14 years, and in 1933, the 21st Amendment repealed the 18th. This is the only instance of the successful repeal of an amendment.
Five years after the end of Prohibition, some people could not let it go. Instead of prohibiting alcohol sales, an amendment pro颅posed in 1938 would have regulated personal behavior by prohibiting drunkenness. The absurdity of enforcing this ban was cheekily pointed out in the handwritten note at the bottom, which proposed adding an equally far-fetched effort to abolish Saturday nights.
Child labor was another topic that sparked emotional reactions. A letter from Suzanne Heber conveys her horror at seeing "the lives ground out of mere babies by hard labor." The cruelty she witnessed spurred her to support child labor regulation. After the Supreme Court invalidated several child labor laws, Congress proposed the Child Labor Amendment in 1924, but it was not ratified by three-fourths of the states. Subse颅quent legislation was upheld, and the pro颅posed amendment became moot.
A letter to senators strongly supported an amendment to curb child labor, but one introduced in 1924 failed.
An amendment introduced in 1838 to pro颅hibit any person involved in a duel from holding federal office represents the kind of amendment that failed because the need for it did not last over time. That year, Representative William Graves of Kentucky shot and killed Representa颅tive Jonathan Cilley of Maine in a duel at the Bladensburg dueling grounds in Maryland.
Although duels had been seen as demon颅strations of bravery and honor, they became an unacceptable way to resolve disputes. Members of Congress introduced two amendments to forbid duelists from holding public office. Neither succeeded, but duel颅ing faded away anyway.
In addition to adding or removing powers from the list given to the federal government in the Constitution, some proposed amendments would have made changes to how existing pow颅ers are exercised. The decision to declare war is a critical power given to Congress. But after World War I and during the Great Depression, some war-weary petitioners sought an amend颅ment that would "give the people the oppor颅tunity to vote on whether or not we are to be plunged into another foreign war."
In a diverse nation, some amendments to our founding charter have aimed to define what it means to be American. For some, this has meant proclaiming America to be a Christian nation.
God is not directly cited in the Constitu颅tion, but some religious groups tried to change that. The "Christian Amendment" would have altered the Preamble of the Constitution to cite "Almighty God" (or other variations) rather than ''We the People" as the document's pri颅mary source of authority. Opponents believed it threatened religious liberty, and the move颅ment faded. Visitors will see a version of the amendment from 1923, but there are similar records dating from the 1840s to the 1990s.
Many consider America's identity to be based on shared political ideals rather than on shared culture or language. For some, an English Language Only amendment would divide Americans, increase ten颅sion between communities, and invite discrimination. But for others, English is central to national unity. A letter from the Polish Amer颅ica Congress explained that organization's support for an English lan颅guage amendment, stating that a univer颅sal language helps immigrants participate in their communities. Several attempts to establish English as the official or only lan颅guage of America failed in Congress in the late 20th century.
Several Amendments Focus on Shape, Mechanics of Our Government
The Founders who wrote the Constitution were uncertain it would work. They were constructing new ways to run a govern颅ment that had never been tried before. It is not surprising, then, that time would reveal some flaws or inefficiencies. Many proposed amendments would alter how the federal government is structured, who participates in government, and how can颅didates are elected.
From the length of a term to what hap颅pens when a President dies in office, the presidency has been a hot topic for revision throughout America's history. These sug颅gested changes are represented through sev颅eral documents that show attempts to alter the structure of the presidency.
Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson takes the oath of office as President aboard Air Force One following John F. Kennedy's assassination in Dallas on November 22, 1963.
For a total of 38 years in the nation's his颅tory, the vice presidency has been vacant when the Vice President died or became President. When Lyndon Johnson became President after John Kennedy's assassina颅tion in 1963, the tragedy galvanized sup颅port for the 25th Amendment, which provided for the appointment of a Vice President. This new process was quickly put to use, only six years after it was rati颅fied in 1967, when Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned in 1973 and President Richard Nixon appointed Gerald Ford to the position. It was used again the very next year in 1974, when Nixon resigned and Ford became President. Subsequently, Ford appointed Nelson Rockefeller to the vice presidency.
When Franklin Roosevelt ran for an unprecedented third presidential term in 1940, Europe was engulfed in the flames of World War II, and America would soon join. Less troubled with breaking George Washington's two-term precedent, many Americans wanted the most qualified per颅son to lead the nation during war. Many citizens wrote to Roosevelt to express their opposition to or support for a third term. After he won a fourth term in 1944, the 22nd Amendment, limiting future Presi颅dents to two terms or 10 years, was ratified in 1951.
Plans for changing how Presidents and members of Congress are chosen for office inspired notable proposed amendments.
Some petitioners from Ohio ironically highlighted the hypocrisy behind Southern states' defense of the Three-Fifths Clause in the Constitution: they claimed that slaves are property but also count them as three-fifths of a person for representation in Congress. The petitioners argued that animal property in free states should be counted as persons with respect to congressional apportionment to balance the counting of enslaved persons in the South. If that was not possible, the petitioners suggested just removing the Three-Fifths Clause altogether.
In the Progressive Era of the early 20th century, the Senate was alleged to be corrupt, unresponsive to citizens, and filled with mil颅lionaires who spent too much on campaigns. A letter on display from the State Grange of Illinois succinctly states these opinions. In response to this letter and others with similar sentiments, the 17th Amendment was ratified in 1913. It provided for direct election of senators by the people instead of election by state legislatures.
The 12th Amendment was a direct response to flaw in the Electoral College system devised by the Founders. In the Electoral College vote tally for the 1800 presidential election, visitors can see that one Federalist member of the Electoral Col颅lege voted for John Jay. If the Republicans had also cast one vote for another candi颅date, they would have avoided a 73-73 tie in the Electoral College and a contentious 36-ballot fight to choose the President in the House of Representatives.
The election was resolved only after Alex颅ander Hamilton encouraged the House of Representatives to elect his adversary Thomas Jefferson over his future mortal enemy Aaron Burr. (Burr killed Hamilton in a duel in 1804.) In 1804, the 12th Amend颅ment modified the Electoral College, ensur颅ing that a tie vote would not occur again. Another document shows one of many recurring attempts to abolish the Electoral College altogether.
Many documents in the 威尼斯人娱乐场 indicate that Americans are clearly not enamored of one of the unique designs in the Constitution鈥攖he Electoral College. One of many ideas suggested in Congress for replacing the Electoral College system devised by the Founders was to elect the President of the United States by lot. House Joint Resolution 8 in 1846 proposed that a ball would be picked from a bowl, and that a candidate from the state marked on the ball would become President. The randomness of this method may have been an attempt to sidestep growing sectional rivalries before the Civil War.
An Idea Becomes an Amendment
The 27th Amendment, regulating the pay of members of Congress, took more than 202 years to be ratified. It was confirmed as an official part of the Constitution when Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson certified it in 1992.
With only 27 ratified amendments out of over 11,000 attempts, it is clearly a diffi颅cult process to navigate. Visitors will learn about that process through an anima颅tion that explains how an idea becomes an amendment. The 威尼斯人娱乐场 plays an important role. The Archivist of the United States certifies the ratification of amend颅ments to affirm that the requirements that are described in Article V of the Constitution have been met. The Archivist's certifi颅cation of the 27th Amendment will be on display in the gallery.
The time it took to ratify the 27th Amendment was unusually long鈥攎ore than 202 years鈥攖he longest amount of time for any amendment. But that fact points to the main lesson to be learned from a study of the 11,000 amendment proposals: it takes a long time and a high degree of societal consensus to get a ratified constitutional amendment.
Why do we amend? We amend when Americans share an understanding of an essential concern that affects us all. We amend so that We the People can create a more per颅fect Union. When we add new ideas to our fundamental governing chatter鈥攐ur Consti颅tution鈥攚e are Amending America.
Christine Blackerby is the curator of ''Amending America:' She is an educa颅tion and public outreach specialist in the Center for Legislative Archives in Washington, D.C. She conducts educator workshops, writes articles, and creates classroom materials using historical records to promote a better understanding of Congress and the history of American representative government.
Learn more about . . .
- One of the Founding Fathers' role in creating the Bill of Rights, in ''A Founding Father in Dissent: Elbridge Gerry Helped Inspire Bill of Rights in His Opposition to the Constitution
- The Constitution and its signers
- How the Constitution received expert conservation treatment a decade ago